Freer Labor: A Biblical Concept for Immigrant Labor

Freer Labor: A Biblical Concept for Immigrant Labor[1]

At first glance when reading through the Bible, one would think that the Bible does not directly address the concept of free labor - the concept that immigrants should legally be allowed to travel and be employed without any overly encumbering restrictions. However, if one takes a closer look, one will notice several key biblical principles that can support the idea behind a biblical policy for immigrant labor. Moreover, economic data also reveals that there is also a net benefit that is achieved from immigrant labor. In Romans 13, Paul is clear that God gave the sword to the government to punish those who do evil and God expects the government to reward good behavior. The United States government does much good and it gets many things right. Yet, one of its grave shortcomings has to do with the issue of immigration. The current immigration system in the US can even be considered unjust due to three inherent flaws: (1) its regulations infringe on the Christian individual/business owners’ rights to be able to carry out God’s command to be hospitable towards immigrants, (2) its regulations are unrealistic towards immigrant laborers and employers, (3) and its regulations go against God’s command to do good for the nation’s people.

First, the scripture makes it clear that God expected His people to be hospitable towards immigrants. The Hebrew word used to refer to resident aliens or immigrants in the Old Testament is גֵּר (gēr). This term is used to refer to both Israel and any other people group residing in a foreign land (Ex 23:21). In a sense gēr is referring to an individual’s status or position in the foreign nation.[2]  The scriptures also makes mention of the verb גּוּר (gur), which means to “reside [as an alien].”[3] According to Rousas Rushdoony, the biblical laws dealing with hospitality towards aliens both “permanent and temporary” are dealing with those who resided in the land and not those foreigners who were just passing through.[4] This concept of hospitality was a personal, individual, or familial decision to take care of the immigrant.[5]

God called his chosen people to treat the resident immigrant justly. In fact, the Old Testament is very specific in requiring the people of God to treat the immigrant as a protected class (Ex 20:10, 23:12; Lev 16:29). This is most clearly shown in Exodus 22:21 which states, “You shall not wrong a stranger or oppress him, for you were strangers in the land of Egypt,” and Deuteronomy 27:19, “‘Cursed is he who distorts the justice due an alien, orphan, and widow.’ And all the people shall say, ‘Amen.’” (NASB) In the book of Exodus, God reminds the nation of Israel that they were once resident aliens in Egypt. One can therefore infer that the reason God willed for them to remember this, was so they would make it a point to treat the immigrants in their land as they would have wished to be treated in Egypt.

God also had expectations of how the nation of Israel was to treat foreign laborers, in matters such as being given the right to glean for food and to be employed as residents if taken in by a family to work on their residence. Daniel Carrol states,

Without land and kin, many sojourners would be dependent on Israelites for work, provisions and protection. They could be day laborers (Deut. 24:14), and the Old Testament mentions that they were conscripted to do the labor in building the temple (1 Chron. 22:2; 2 Chron. 2:17-18). [6]

                                                

In other words, God expected his people to treat the immigrant labor justly. Bernhard Asen even further bolsters this point by stating that Israel was not just to treat the gēr as a protected class, but the people of Israel were to also incorporate or include them into their society. Asen States, “in addition to protection, inclusion of the gēr into the community to share privileges also is seen as important.”[7]  This incorporation according to Christopher Wright included the “feast of weeks and booths,” and a resident alien who happened to be a hired laborer could also be included at Passover.[8] Write argues the eligibility was based on the fact that they would have been included within an Israelite family with whom they were residing.[9] Therefore, the people of God in the Old Testament were to be hospitable toward the resident alien and include and protect them as a class, just as they would have wanted to have been treated when they were in slaves in the land of Egypt.

This concept is even more important if one looks at the teaching of Jesus. As he stated in Luke 6:31, “Treat others the same way you want them to treat you.”  Thus, just as Christians would want people from other nations to give them help and employment, so that they could take care of their families, so then should Christians help out those immigrants who wish to labor for their families. However, this has proven problematic in the United States since there are unrealistic worker visa programs that make it almost impossible for Christian business owners to be able to be hospitable and have the opportunity to hire immigrant laborers who are in need. The current federal caps on immigrant labor incentivize many immigrants to come here illegally and risk being caught. Many of these people, if they could, would have obtained a work visa or a legal means to come to the United States.

This becomes a problem, biblically, for Christians because as the chosen people of God they too should be hospitable towards aliens and any other class of people who should be protected. This is why the current immigration policy restrictions pose a dilemma for Christians, because while they are to be submissive and respectful to the government God has placed over them, they also have an obligation to protect and seek justice for those who are in classes that need to be protected, like the resident alien. Christian individuals/business owners should respect their government, while at the same time seek for a more biblical policy that will lead to a more realistic policy towards aliens seeking work, and continue to work to incorporate the alien into the community. This is all founded on the basic biblical concept of loving one’s neighbors and treating them, as the believer would want to be treated if he or she were in a similar situation.

The second problem with the immigration system is that it has unrealistic regulations on immigrant labor. As previously mentioned, the scriptures do not ban migrant or immigrant labor. Rather, it takes for granted that foreigners would be around and would need protection. Just as prohibition failed because it was an unrealistic regulation on human action; so too the current immigrant labor quota system is failing because it is unrealistically regulating labor. There is not a biblical mandate on the total number of immigrants a nation should allow to enter its borders; rather, the Scriptures simply presuppose that resident aliens will be around.  The guest worker program in the United States is broken down into three major sections H-1b[10](skilled labor) which is capped at 65,000 persons and the  H-2a(agricultural) and H-2b[11] (non agricultural) visas - both capped at 66,000. These all do not even come close to meeting the demand for labor that many American industries need.

In addition to these quotas, the Federal government, under the current administration, has made it harder on farmers to legally higher immigrant labor. According to an Immigration Works policy brief, the Obama administration’s new regulations eliminated “the streamline application process for employers” implemented by the Bush administration and instead in required employers to “submit to a lengthy DOL(Department of Labor) review,” to apply for immigrant laborers.[12] The Obama administration also has raised the federal minimum wage on foreign workers to $9.48, and increased fines to $1,500 per employee for farmers who are missing even one piece of paper work.[13] This is on top of that fact that it costs farmers thousands of dollars to hire lawyers to help them file all the legal paper work with the department of labor. Another added cost for farmers created by new regulations is the increased risk for being sued. David Bier explains,

Labor Department requirements mandate U.S. employees be treated similarly to migrants, but Obama officials created a new definition of ‘corresponding’ treatment that could be interpreted by courts to include the housing, transportation, and in some instances, meals that H-2A regulations require employers to supply to migrants. Disgruntled employees who are citizens or permanent residents could sue under the ambiguous definition and potentially collect damages.[14]

The current administration has also passed new regulations on highly skilled laborers with H-1b visas that are adding cost to businesses that would keep their business here in America if it were not for these added costs. One such regulation dictated that no company who had employees with H-1b visas could be eligible to partake in federal bailouts through the Trouble Asset Relief program known as TARP.[15] There has also been an increase in the processing fees of business with more than 50 employees who wish to higher immigrants with H-1b visas “from $325 to as much as $2,300.”[16] These are all added cost that do harm to business and ultimately the nation’s economy.

All of these added costs and legal liabilities incentivize farmers to hire illegal immigrants. The caps on legal immigration also incentivize immigrant workers to come work in the United States illegally, even with increased federal enforcement.  The fact is, “if the extra cost of such enforcement[along with these new regulations] is larger than the net fiscal cost of illegal immigration, then driving illegal immigration to zero would fail a cost benefit test.”[17] Current federal enforcement for hiring legal immigrants may cost more than to take a risk to higher immigrants who are not authorized to be here. A perfect example of this risk taking by business owners can be found in Arizona, since it passed the Legal Arizona Workers Act (LAWA). LAWA required Arizona employers to use E-verify to ensure the legal status of their employees. In response to this law, employers and immigrants responded differently. First, there was an increase in self employment by 73%, of which, “about 25,000 Arizona Hispanic noncitizens dropped out of the formal wage market and became self-employed.”[18] Moreover, employers responded with only a “72 percent” participation rate in 2010, and a “67 percent in 2011.”[19]  The reality is that this is a Genesis 3 world; unrealistic laws like prohibition and immigration labor regulations are unjust because they do not coincide with basic human nature. The government should seek to do good for its citizens (Rom 13:4), and placing unrealistic labor restrictions that incentivize individuals to sin by breaking laws is not good. This is why Christians should seek to reform immigrant labor laws to be more free and open by removing these unrealistic restrictions.

Thirdly, the current immigration policies inhibit economic growth and reduce national productivity. This is counter to the idea that, “one of the primary responsibilities of government is to act as God’s servant to ‘do good’ for the citizens of a nation (see Rom. 13:4).”[20]  The reality is that immigration will increase the nation’s ability to produce and therefore increase economic growth. Yet, there are some detractors who disagree with this position like Californians for Population Stabilization (CAPS), and possibly the most academic detractor when it comes to low skilled immigrant labor is Economist George Borjas.

For example CAPS runs sensational TV ads, insinuating that Americans are unemployed, because immigrants are “taking American jobs.”[21] This is clearly Malthusian’s thinking that there are only a set number of jobs. There are not a set number of jobs. Jobs are created and lost every day; there is no set labor force. Since the 1950s, there has been an increase of about 90 million new workers in the labor force including women, and baby boomers.[22] This has not resulted in any “long term increase” in unemployment rates.[23]  Many activists who support immigration and immigrant labor argue that immigrants do the jobs that Americans won’t do,  at least for the wages being offered, but if the wages were increased then Americans would apply for those jobs. In some cases this may be true, but it does not ring true in all situations. The problem is that higher wages would mean that many of those jobs would no longer be there.[24]  Benjamin Powell explains,

Approximately one third of all garment workers in the United States are immigrants. If wages needed to be higher to get Americans to take the jobs, many of these jobs would have gone overseas. .. In Arizona, for example, only 30 percent of the 2004 lettuce crop was harvested; the rest was left in the ground to rot. Losses were nearly $1 billion. Farmers certainly could have paid higher wages to get the crop harvested, but losses would presumably have been even greater.[25]

In the end, an increase in wages could result in a loss of productivity and economic growth.

       Another proponent of the idea that immigrants are taking “American jobs” is Harvard Economist George Borjas.  In 2010 he coauthored an article arguing that African American incarceration rates were on the rise because low skilled immigrants were taking their jobs.[26] Diana Furchotgott-Roth explains the flaws in Borjas’s study. First, African American men started to “withdraw from the labor force in the 1960s,” when immigrants made up “less than 1 percent” of the labor force.[27]Moreover,  “The percentage of black men between ages 16 and 24 who were not in school, not working, and not looking for work rose to 18 percent in 1982 from 9 percent in 1964. It then reached 23 percent in 1997 and remained at that level as of 2011.”[28] Finally, Borjas does not even mention in his study the changes in laws and policies, nor does he consider how both have been enforced. Therefore, immigration is not the reason for the rise in African American unemployment or the direct reason for the increase in their incarceration rates.

            Another problem with this argument that immigrants take American jobs is the fact that, many more families are moving towards both parents working outside of the household. Hanson found that this, “often requires hiring outside labor to care for children, clean the home, launder clothes, and tend to the yard.”[29] He also found that the in cities where immigrant labor was prevalent that these services were more affordable.[30]

            Borjas in several of his studies showed that cheap immigrant labor harms the high school dropouts by reducing their wages. In 2003 he claimed wages dropped by 9%, in 2004 by 7%, and in 2006 by 5%.[31] There are two other studies worth noting.  One is by David Card which showed that low skilled immigrant labor reduced low skilled workers wages by 3 percent in cities where the population of immigrants was higher. The second study was done by Giovanni Peri, who found that immigrants only cause 0.7 percent decrease in low skilled workers’ wages.[32] In other words, even though wages are depressed for high school drop outs, there is not enough decisive evidence to point out how much wages are lowered, nor is there enough negative evidence to call for a reduction in low skilled immigrant labor compared to its benefits.  

There any many benefits to having affordable labor. As previously mentioned, in cities that boast a high percentage of low skilled immigrant labor, goods and services are provided at a more affordable rate. This translates into cost savings for the population as a whole.  It is imperative to understand that the total national income is not lost from these savings; rather it is redistributed by creating employer gains and savings for consumers.[33]  The savings for the consumer will allow them to later choose where they would like to spend the extra cash, which would in turn help another business, consequently, helping the employees of that business. In the end, the wealth is not lost.  In addition, high skilled laborers who are paid less than native born employees actually add to economic growth and job creation. Economist Peri explains that “firms pay immigrants less than their marginal productivity, increasing the firms’ profits. Such cost savings on immigrants act as an increase in productivity for firms…[T]his allows firms to expand production and employ more people in complementary task many of which are supplied by natives.”[34] Therefore, immigrant labor helps to creates more affordable goods and services by increasing profits to businesses and helps them to employ more Americans, which are net benefits, instead of a net loss.   

In conclusion, a biblical policy towards immigrant labor would be to allow for a freer more open system, because it fulfils God’s command that the government do good to the people, and it allows Christian individuals/business owners to legally carry out God’s command to be hospitable towards immigrant laborers. This should include the removal of federal caps on labor and a shift towards a system where the free market decides the number of laborers that are needed.  There should also be a removal of unrealistic federal mandates and regulations that make it harder for business owners to legally hire immigrant labor. A policy based off the free market would not just benefit the United States, but it would also benefit the immigrant who comes to the United States to make several times more than he or she could have earned in their home nation. In many cases, this move would also improve the immigrant’s standard of living. Some may argue that these immigrants harm low skilled native born workers; but the reality is that these people already have protections which come in the form of unemployment insurance, welfare, food stamps and so on. Ultimately, the government’s job should not be one of creating jobs, but one of being just. A just society creates the ideal framework for economic growth and prosperity – for both the citizen and the immigrant.   

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[1] The term freer labor is used instead of Free Labor because, the author does not believe in open boarders, but does believe that the free flow should be allowed by the Government who should screen and have limited regulations, but not cap allowing people to freely and legally come to work in the United States.

[2] Baker, D. L. Tight Fists or Open Hands?: Wealth and Poverty in Old Testament Law. Grand Rapids, Mich: William B. Eerdmans Pub, 2009.178.

[3] Baker, Tight Fist Open Hands, 178.  This verb “gur” (1481a.גּוּר)has been translated by the NASB several ways which many can convey the idea of residing, or dwelling: “abide*(1), alien(1), aliens(1), assemble(1), colonize(1), dwell(3), dwells(1), habitation(1), live(4), live as aliens(2), lives(1), reside(13), resided(1), resides(3), sojourn(11), sojourned(9), sojourning(1), sojourns(13), stay(6), staying(4), stays(1), strangers(3).” Robert L. Thomas, ‘1481aגּוּר   gur.” New American Standard Hebrew-Aramaic and Greek Dictionaries : Updated Edition (Anaheim: Foundation Publications, Inc., 1998).

[4] Rushdoony, Rousas John. The Institutes of Biblical Law 2, Law and Society. (Nutley, N.J.]: Craig Pr, 1982.):199.

[5] M.  Daniel Carrol R., Christians at the Boarder: Immigration, the Church, and the Bible. (Grand Rapids: Baker Pub. Group, 2008): 95. 

[6] Carrol, Christians at the Boarder, 103.

[7] Bernhard Asen, “From Acceptance to Inclusion: The Stranger (גֵּר /gēr) in Old Testament Tradition, in Christianity and the stranger: historical essays. (ed. Nichols, Francis W. Atlanta, Ga: Scholars Press, 1995): 16-35.

[8] Christopher J. H. Wright, God's People in God's Land: Family, Land, and Property in the Old Testament. (Grand Rapids, Mich: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co, 1990.): 101.

[9] Wright, God’s People in God’s Land, 101-102.

[10] United States citizen and immigration services, “Cap Count for H-2B Nonimmigrants,” 17 April 2013, <http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis/menuitem.5af9bb95919f35e66f614176543f6d1a/?vgnextoid=356b6c521eb97210VgnVCM100000082ca60aRCRD&vgnextchannel=d1d333e559274210VgnVCM100000082ca60aRCRD>(21 April 21, 2013).

[11] Andorra Bruno, “Immigration of Temporary Lower-Skilled Workers: Current Policy and Related Issues,” Congressional Research services. (2012): 9.

[12] Immigration Works USA, “Reduced Access: New Regulations Aimed at Temporary Worker Visas.” (2009):1. <http://www.aila.org/content/default.aspx?docid=30325>

[13] David Beir, “Obama’s Secret Anti-Immigrant Campaign.” Real Clear Politics.com, 9 July 2012, <http://www.realclearpolicy.com/articles/2012/07/09/obamas_secret_anti-immigration_campaign_203.html> (16 April  2013).

[14]Beir, Obama’s Secret, 2012.

[15] Beir, Obama’s Secret, 2012; & Immigration Works USA, “Reduced Access,” 2009, 3.

[16] Beir, Obama’s Secret, 2012

[17]Gordon H. Harrison, Immigration and Economic Growth, CATO Journal. 32, 1 (2012): 31. <http://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato-journal/2012/1/cj32n1-3.pdf>

[18] Alex Nowrasteh, The Economic Case against Arizona’s Immigration Laws, Cato Policy Analysis No. 709. (2012).9.

< http://www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/economic-case-against-arizonas-immigration-laws>

[19] Nowrasteh, The Economic Case, 9.

[20] Wayne Grudem, Politics According to the Bible: A Comprehensive Resource for understanding Modern Political Issues in the Light of Scripture, (Grand Rapids, Zondervan, 2010), 269.

[21] Californians for Population Stabilization (CAPS), “Press Release: Memorial Day TV Ad Ask why President Obama is admitting millions of Immigrant Workers when 1 in 3 Young Veterans are Jobless.” 22 May 2012. 

<http://www.capsweb.org/content.php?id=1637&menu_id=8&menu_item_id=28>

[22] Benjamin Powell, An economic Case for Immigration, 7 June 2010. <http://www.econlib.org/library/Columns/y2010/Powellimmigration.html>

[23] Powell, Case for Immigration, 2010.

[24] Powell, Case for Immigration, 2010.

[25] Powell, Case for Immigration, 2010.

[26] Borjas, George J., Jeffrey Grogger, and Gordon H. Hanson. 2010. "Immigration and the Economic Status of African-American Men." Economica 77, no. 306: 255-282.

[27] Diana Furchotgott-Roth, “The Path Forward for Immigration”. Manhattan Institute for Policy Research. 12 December 2012.8.  <http://www.bushcenter.org/blog/2013/02/01/path-forward-immigration>

[28] Furchotgott-Roth, The Path Forward, 2012, 12.

[29] Harrison, Immigration and Economic Growth, 2012, 28.

[30] Harrison, Immigration and Economic Growth, 2012, 28.

[31] Furchotgott-Roth, The Path Forward, 2012, 9.

[32] Furchotgott-Roth, The Path Forward, 2012, 9.

[33] Harrison, Immigration and Economic Growth, 2012, 28.

[34] Peri, Giovanni. "IMMIGRATION, LABOR MARKETS, AND PRODUCTIVITY." CATO Journal 32, no. 1 (Winter2012 2012): 35-53.44.

Bibliography

Asen, Bernhard, “From Acceptance to Inclusion: The Stranger (גֵּר /gēr) in Old Testament Tradition, in Christianity and the stranger: historical essays. ed. Nichols, Francis W. Atlanta, Ga: Scholars Press, 1995.

Baker, D. L. Tight Fists or Open Hands?: Wealth and Poverty in Old Testament Law. Grand Rapids, Mich: William B. Eerdmans Pub, 2009.178.

Beir, David, “Obama’s Secret Anti-Immigrant Campaign.” Real Clear Politics.com, 9 July 2012, (16 April  2013).

Borjas, George J., Jeffrey Grogger, and Gordon H. Hanson. 2010. "Immigration and the Economic Status of African-American Men." Economica 77, no. 306: 255-282.

Bruno, Andorra, “Immigration of Temporary Lower-Skilled Workers: Current Policy and Related Issues,” Congressional Research services.2012.

R42434.pdf>

Californians for Population Stabilization (CAPS), “Press Release: Memorial Day TV Ad Ask why President Obama is admitting millions of Immigrant Workers when 1 in 3 Young Veterans are Jobless.” 22 May 2012.

Carroll R., M. Daniel. Christians at the Border Immigration, the Church, and the Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Pub. Group, 2008.

Furchotgott-Roth, Diana ,“The Path Forward for Immigration”. Manhattan Institute for Policy Research. 12 December 2012.8.

Grudem, Wayne, Politics According to the Bible: A Comprehensive Resource for understanding Modern Political Issues in the Light of Scripture, Grand Rapids, Zondervan, 2010.

 Harrison, Gordon H.,  Immigration and Economic Growth, CATO Journal. 32, 1 (2012): 31.

Immigration Works USA, “Reduced Access: New Regulations Aimed at Temporary Worker Visas.” (2009):1.

Nowrasteh, Alex, The Economic Case against Arizona’s Immigration Laws, Cato Policy Analysis No. 709. (2012).1-20.

Peri, Giovanni. "IMMIGRATION, LABOR MARKETS, AND PRODUCTIVITY." CATO Journal 32, no. 1 (Winter2012 2012): 35-53.44.< http://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files /serials/files/cato-journal/2012/1/ cj32n1-4.pdf >

Powell, Benjamin , An economic Case for Immigration, 7 June 2010.

Rushdoony, Rousas John. The Institutes of Biblical Law 2, Law and Society. [Nutley, N.J.]: Craig Pr, 1982.

Thomas, Robert L.  ‘1481aגּוּר   gur.” New American Standard Hebrew-Aramaic and Greek Dictionaries : Updated Edition,Anaheim: Foundation Publications, Inc., 1998.

United States citizen and immigration services, “Cap Count for H-2B Nonimmigrants,” 17 April 2013, (21 April 21, 2013).

Wright, Christopher J. H. God's People in God's Land: Family, Land, and Property in the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, Mich: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co, 1990.

Martin Luther's Understanidng of the Authorship and Warning Passages in Hebrews

The PDF for this can be accessed from Academia.edu by click here

Martin Luther’s lectures on Hebrews make up a fascinating interaction with the Biblical text. Luther’s lectures were written around 1516-1518. Luther in his lecture notes and his preface to the book of Hebrews, seek to deal with the concepts of authorship, canonicity, and the warning passages. Luther’s hermeneutic to interpret scripture with scripture and his Pauline bias lead him to deny Biblical authority and the canonicity of the book of Hebrews.

Martin Luther

First, it must be noted that Martin Luther never published his notes on the book of Hebrews, and his “own lecture notes are not extant.”[1] In fact there are only two manuscripts from two students of Luther, still in existence today.[2] It is important to realize the students’ copies of Luther’s notes, may not necessarily be Luther’s original thought.  The original lectures were in Latin; in fact Luther had special copies of the Latin vulgate printed off for his students. Kenneth Hagan explains:

Luther lectured on Hebrews, as he had done on the Psalms, Romans and Galatians, in traditional manner by dividing his material into Gloss and Scholium…For his preparations Luther glossed his special copy of the Latin Vulgate by inserting short summary and descriptive phrases between the lines of the text (traditionally know throughout the Middle Ages as the interlinear gloss) and by adding more extended exegetical material in the margins (traditionally known as the marginal or ordinary gloss). Luther also worked out his own extensive exegetical and theological interpretation of Hebrews (Traditionally known as scholium)…Each student had his own copy of the Vulgate, which Luther had had printed especially for his class. The student then glossed his own text with the interlinear and marginal Glosses as well as with the scholium that Luther dictated.[3]

Thus, since the students were writing Luther’s dictation, these lectures are more or less based on these two particular students’ understanding of what Luther was teaching.  This becomes even more evident when one realizes that Luther’s Glosses contained word or passage studies, grammatical and or philological issues, and moral/ethical issues.[4] Meanwhile, the Scholium is essentially Luther’s interpretation of the text and his “exposition.” [5] Secondly, it must also be noted that this paper was researched based on the English translations of the American Edition of Luther’s Works. Therefore it is also important to know that the editor Jaroslav Pelikan decided to leave out all the glosses, and only translate the scholia. Thirdly, it must be noted that Luther’s lectures on Hebrews only cover Hebrews chapters 1-11.

Authorship

            Luther has had several thoughts on the authorship of the Book of Hebrews. Originally, he was content with a Pauline authorship. Hagen, interprets an older version of Luther’s notes from a German translation. It states,

we should note that Paul in this epistle exalts grace and contrast it with the  arrogance of legal and human righteousness.  He shows that without Christ, neither the law nor the priesthood nor prophecy nor even finally the ministry of the angels was sufficient for salvation. In fact all these were established and provided in reference to the coming of Christ. Therefore, everything considered, he proposes that one should teach Christ alone.[6][bold added]

It is probably best to note here Luther’s positive understanding of the book of Hebrews. Now compare this to Luther’s later understanding of Hebrews from his 1522 preface to the book of Hebrews, where Luther states, “in the first place, the fact that Hebrews is not an epistle of St. Paul, or any other apostle…who wrote it is not know, and will probably not be known for a while; it makes no difference.” In other words, Luther’s most recent comments on the book are that Paul did not write it and neither did any other apostle. There is also speculation that Luther thought possibly that Apollos was the author of Hebrews. According to David Allen, Luther, in one of his (Luther’s) sermons on Hebrews 1:1-4, argued that Apollos was the author of Hebrews in 1522.[7] This seems to be problematic though, because Luther publishes in the same year where He very definitively states “who wrote it is not know, and will probably not be known for a while.” Allen then shows that Luther’s commentary on Genesis attributes the book of Hebrews to Apollos.[8] This must also be taken with a grain of salt since these Genesis lectures were also notes taken from Luther’s students. Yet, despite whether Luther thought the book of Hebrews was written by Apollos or by an unknown author, his conclusion remained unchanged – that the author of Hebrews (at least according to Luther) was not an apostle.  This belief will play an important role in Luther’s understanding of the book of Hebrews.

The Warning Passages in Hebrews

            Like many modern reformed theologians, Luther starts off with the presupposition that the ones who are being discussed in the warning passages are not Christians - at least that is what it seems at first.  Later he argues and denies canonicity and the scriptural authority of the book. Moreover, the concept of losing one’s salvation, not being able to repent or no longer having a sacrifice as expressed in Hebrews 6 and 10, are completely foreign ideas. Since Luther’s lectures only cover Hebrews 1-11 this study will only cover the warnings in 4 of the 5 warning passages. This means that the two original texts left from his notes did not contain the last two chapters, because Luther cites them in his other works.  Also, these lectures were written between 1516-1518, where he still held to Pauline authorship and held to this book as being apostolically inspired. However, his thoughts on the source of this book changes after 1522 when he publishes his introduction to the New Testament books. Luther goes as far as to place Hebrews, James, Jude and Revelations as uninspired New Testament apocrypha. This change in Luther’s understanding of authorship does play an important role in his hermeneutic of the warning passage.

            The first warning Luther expounds on is found in Hebrews chapter 2:2-3, which is translated, “For if the message declared by angels was valid, [and every transgression and disobedience received a just retribution].”[9] Luther sees this passage as dealing with the Law. In Luther’s theology he breaks down the word of God into two categories: one of Law and Gospel. The law in Luther’s “law and Gospel” theology functions as God’s wrath on the sinner.[10]  Paul Althaus explains,

The Law was originally not a means of God’s wrath. In primeval state man could still fulfill it. Therefore, it was not a burden for him but a joy. Since the fall however, everything is different man. Man is no longer able to fulfill the law. For this reason the law which for men was once a means of community with God, now becomes the instrument of God’s wrath.[11]

This is exactly how Luther proceeds to formulate his theological understanding of this passage.  Luther first cites Romans 8:3, which his translations and comments state, “‘For what the law could not do, in that it was weakened, because of the flesh,’ that is, was not fulfilled but was rather neglected.” As Altheus stated in the quote above, “since the fall” that man has not been able to fulfill the law. Luther also links this warning passage with the fourth and final warning in Hebrews 10. Luther states, “the Law is said to be established and ratified, and, on the other hand, to become invalid, as below in

ch. 10:28, where a man is making void the law of Moses is mentioned.”[12] Luther sees these people as people who tried to earn righteousness on their own strength, by trying to fulfill the law as a means of salvation. Luther states, “The result was that they fulfilled the Law only out of fear of punishment or out of love of reward. But to fulfill the Law in this way is to practice pure hypocrisy.”[13] In the end Luther understands these people, the “hypocrites”, to be unbelievers. To Luther, he sees these actions are inevitable for “every man who is outside of Christ.”[14] Therefore, while he does not directly come out and say that the ones receiving a just retribution are unbelievers it is implied.

            This does not mean though that, the punishment or the “just retribution” is eternal damnation or hell. Rather, for Luther, this punishment is an external punishment. External punishment is an earthly punishment or physical punishment that is dealing with the inward man. To Luther there is the Law and the Gospel, the law is the left hand of God which serves the purpose of regulating and coercing activities. It is there to cause people to perform good works, but to Luther all these works are external works. The external works by no means help with salvation. Thus, the punishment for not obeying external laws by doing external works according to Luther was an external punishment, and or external reward. Luther believed it was just as much a sin to do good works for rewards - thinking one can earn one’s way to heaven, as it is to live a sinful life. This is why Luther calls these people hypocrites. Moreover, Luther viewed salvation as being acquired through only one work - the work of Christ. This is the only internal work for Luther. While the punishment for this passage is not eternal damnation, the result is still the same because according to Luther these people are not in Christ. Hell will be their end result, but it will not be on account of their external transgressions but on account of their unbelief.

            The second verse in this warning passage is Hebrews 2:3, which Luther interprets, “[How shall we escape] if we neglect such a great salvation?”.  Luther goes on to explain his law and gospel understanding of this warning in more detail on the comments on this verse. He states, “The Law and the Gospel also differ for this reason, that in the law there are very many works- they are all external- but in the Gospel there is only one work- it is internal-which is faith…therefore the whole substance of the new law and its righteousness is that one and only faith in Christ.”[15]  Luther in this passage is not even discussing eternal issues such as heaven or hell, because he understands verse 2 to be dealing with disobedience to external works. One might ask that since this is referring to external, rather than internal, disobedience and has nothing to do with hell or damnation, then why does it imply that these people have to be unbelievers? Luther, like many reformed theologians, believe “it is impossible for faith in Him (Christ) to be idle; for it is alive, and it itself works and triumphs, and in this ways works flow forth spontaneously from faith.”[16] This is another reason why this passage according to Luther cannot be talking about true Christians, because a Christian’s faith would cause the external good works to spontaneously generate. 

            In the following warning passage Hebrews 3-4, Luther, being an Old Testament scholar, immediately notices the link between the wilderness generation and the warning passage. Luther takes Hebrews 3:10 to mean that in the future there will be a people that God is just as displeased with as the wilderness generation; but he does not clarify whether the future people are Christians or not.[17] Later in verse 3:12 which states, “Take care, brethren, lest there be in any of you an evil heart.” Luther takes this as to mean again someone who is not saved. For example, Luther then directly references Titus 1:15, which he translates, “To the impure nothing is pure, but their minds and consciences are corrupted.” In other words, Luther understands these people with unbelieving hearts to be unbelievers because they have an impure heart. Luther in his comment goes on to say,

For one falls away from the living God when one falls away His Word, which is alive and gives life to all things, yes, is God himself. Therefore they die. He who does not believe is dead. But falling away comes about through unbelief. And thus it is clear what an ‘evil heart’ of unbelief is. It is a heart which nothing is good, but everything is evil, because it departs from everything that is good.[18]

This is probably one of the clearest statements made by Luther on the warning passages. Here one can see that Luther clearly understands these people who miss the rest as people who have nothing good in their hearts and this is due to unbelief.  Therefore, for Luther, this is not a matter of losing one’s salvation because these people did not have faith; if they did, they would be producing work as noted earlier.

            This point is explained even more clearly in Luther’s comments on Hebrews 4:12 which states, “for the word of God is living and powerful.”[19] This according to Luther has a twofold meaning. First that for the believer it is power, it is an enabling power for those who believe it in faith. Luther states, “it is the ‘powerful,’ because it makes those who believe able to do everything.”[20]  For Luther, the word of God is the proclamation, the oral word spoken and if one is a believer he will have responded positively to that word. If one is an unbeliever, then he or she has responded negatively to that proclaimed word. To respond positively to the proclaimed word, one has to have a purified heart.[21] For the unbeliever, this passage is one of judgment of wrath. Luther states this passage is “better…understood as a threat of cruel punishment for unbelievers.”[22] Luther goes on by quoting John Chrystom, “indeed, it is cruller than any sword: for it will fall upon (that is, will cut) the souls of those inflicting cruel wounds and fatal cuts.” Luther also links this passage of the word of God being living and powerful, back to the warning in Hebrews 2:3 about escaping the great salvation. He asserts, “Therefore since the Word of God is above all things, outside all things, within all things, before all things, behind all things. Therefore everywhere, it is impossible to escape to any place.”[23]  Moreover he links it to eternal punishment. Luther continues by explaining that this punishment because it is “living” is also “eternal,” which results in never ending “punishment.”[24] This again directly fits into Luther’s concept of Law and the Gospel. Luther understood the law to be just as much the word of God as the Gospel, combined one brings wrath to unbelievers and crushes them. Meanwhile, the Gospel kills one’s self on the cross of Christ and make alive and the one who does respond in faith to the Gospel, the word of God. In the end, Luther understands this warning to be two fold, for believers need to prepare for Christ’s (the High Priest) return, because when He does some will receive eternal punishment, while others will receive the implied rest.[25]  Luther does not explicitly define rest, but the implication seems to be eternity with Christ. 

            In the second warning in chapters 3 and 4, Luther talks about an evil heart. For Luther, the one’s heart is evil because it did not listen to the oral or the proclaimed word of God. This is all based on Luther’s understanding of faith. This is the key to understanding to whom this warning is talking. Kenneth Hagen explains,

Luther holds that the key to [3:12] is the word ‘Heart.’ He interprets the verse as an exhortation for one to be sure that his heart is ‘clean.’ Faith cleanses the Heart. Through faith united to Christ who is verbum dei man becomes ‘clean,’ ‘pure,’ ‘just,’ ‘wise,’ ‘good,’ and so on.[26]

Thus the warning is for the unbeliever who has not responded in faith to Christ. This results in never being purified, justified and never being saved. Therefore, to Luther, these evil unbelieving hearts refer to unbelievers. Meanwhile, those who do respond to the oral proclaimed Word of God, those are purified. While other commentators from the Middle Ages like, “Aquinas, Tarantasia and Lyra” explained these verses to mean one needs to perform good works, this is contrary to Luther’s understanding of faith.[27] Luther’s interpretation was a major shift in medieval thought as he had split away from the teaching that these passages called for people to perform good works. Luther saw that through faith one could keep one’s heart strong. Hagan translates Luther’s thoughts, “Just as man’s body cannot become strong without bread, so also his heart cannot become strong without the bread of God’s Word.”[28]  Luther also makes a major shift in even inserting faith into the concept of cleansing one’s heart. Luther argues in Hebrews 9:14 that one’s conscience or heart is cleansed or purified through faith.[29] This is an important transition, Hagan states, “With the exception of Aquinas, faith is not mentioned by medieval exegetes in their interpretation of” Hebrews 9:14.[30]

This then opens the reality that the warning is not focused toward believers (Christians), because Luther believes that one can only respond to the Word of God through faith. In Hebrews 3:7 Luther seems to clarify this idea for his students, he comments, that, “it is perverse…for one to hasten to works before God works in us, that is before we believe.”[31]  Therefore, for Luther these passages are not talking about those who are Christians because if one was a Christian he or she would be purified and would have already been performing good works.

With regards to the following two warnings, Luther begins to have his shift in thoughts about the book of Hebrews and decides that it is not Pauline. For instance, in 1522 about 4 to 6 years after Luther’s lectures in his preface to the epistle to the Hebrews Luther states, “Up to this point we have had (to do with) the true and certain chief books of the New Testament. The four which follow have from ancient times had a different reputation.”[32]  In other words, Luther is denying its canonicity. He argues in part due to the next two warning passages Hebrews 6:4-6 and 10:26-27. Luther states,

“Again, there is a hard knot in the fact that chapters 6[:4-6] and 10[:26-27] it flatly denies and forbids to sinners any repentance after baptism; and in chapter 12[:7] it says that Esau sought repentance and did not find it. This [seems, as it stands, to be] contrary to all the gospels and to St. Paul’s epistles; and although one might venture an interpretation of it, the words are so clear that I do not know whether that would be sufficient.”

This is important to keep in mind, because Luther’s comments while not this strong, will seemingly be leaning toward this idea. In his notes, he does not even deal with verses 3 or 4, but instead skips to verse 6, which he translates, “To restore again to repentance those who have fallen away.”[33] First, Luther disagrees with changing the word “impossible” to “difficult” trying to be as literal as possible.[34] Next, he makes a confusing statement that, “it is no less difficult for God to justify any godless person again, and it is impossible for man to rise from any sin.”[35] This statement creates a paradox of justified godless people whom God would have to justify again. As noted in the preface to Luther’s works, he no longer holds this view. Instead, Luther stated above in the preface that he believes the author to be wrong about repentance. Even in his lectures, he seems to be leaning towards this thought. Luther proceeds to cite multiple verses that begin to show how God brings the sinner back to Him, and back to repentance.

In the final passage, Luther’s commentary really only deals with Hebrews 10:26, which he translates: “For [if we sin] deliberately [after receiving the knowledge of the truth, there no longer remains a sacrifice for sins].”[36] Luther believes that this passage along with the warning in chapter 6, can only be understood “on the basis of other scripture passages.”[37] Luther does this because he believes that others might be “contentious” and argue for other interpretations.[38] Therefore, Luther knew this verse could cause controversy to some degree. From here Luther continues with his understanding of Pauline Biblical theology rather than exegeting the passage. Luther goes back to his theology of Law and the Gospel, by arguing that one cannot “sin against faith.”[39] He gives the example of David who is known for deliberately sinning. Luther explains that David’s sin was not “against faith”, but only against the fifth and sixth commandment.[40] While this seems rather flippant to say “Oh he only broke two commandments”; that is not Luther’s point. Rather, Luther is arguing from the concept of Law and Gospel. For Luther, David’s sins and most other sins were a result of external or horizontal worldly sins. Luther believed these sins get punished by external punishments as stated earlier. Luther explains that this type of sin is probably a mortal sin (which he bases off of Hebrew 10:29) and death to Luther is an external punishment. Luther cites 1 Corinthians 13:7; specifically the fact the love bears all things, and to Luther all things mean all things including external sins. He then argues that in 1 John those “who are born of God do not sin,” which is a traditional reformed understanding.

Luther then turns the argument on its head in opposition to the Armenians’ point of view. He argues that “he who is outside Christ cannot repent.”[41] He continues, that one “must understand that there is perseverance; that, is, just as he who is in grace cannot sin, no matter what he does, but remains in grace, so he who is in sin, cannot do good, no matter what he does, but remains in sins.”[42] Namely, it does not matter what one who is in grace does, because if he sins he is still under grace and dies under the work of Christ, and the end result is heaven. This is synonymous to the sinner as it does not matter how much he sins or does not sin, he is going to die apart from Christ and the end result is hell. For Luther, in the end, our actions here on earth are basically irrelevant to eternal realities, such as heaven. Moreover, there are two “state of affairs” which one can live in, either in Christ or not.[43] In conclusion, Luther sees the impossibility to be one of a change of state rather than of repentance.

Conclusion

            In the end, Luther’s interpretation was more influenced by his dogmatism and proof texting. Luther, throughout his lecture notes uses scripture to interpret scripture, and several times argued for a more literal interpretation even when it was not popular among the commentaries of his day. Yet despondently, Luther, being a Biblical theologian, used his Pauline Biblical theology as a mold in which to try and fit the book of Hebrews. The end result of this as seen in his preface to the book of Hebrews was a rejection from the cannon. Granted, Luther still appreciated and loved the book for the author’s understanding of faith and Christ as the great high priest. In the end, Luther’s theology of the warning passages was more of a list of proof text to argue why he is right and why other interpreters are wrong, than a true verse by verse interpretation. In the end his Pauline presuppositions, which were not necessarily wrong, got in the way of allowing him to truly create an exegetical exposition of the passages in Hebrews. This might also be just Luther’s response to a more Armenian understanding of the text that was prevalent during his time. But despite the reason, Luther was overly dogmatic in his exposition, which affected his ability to interpret the Hebrew text; and in the end it eventually caused him to reject Hebrews’ canonicity along with that of James, Jude and Revelation.   

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[1] Kenneth Hagen, A Theology of Testament In the Young Luther: the Lectures on Hebrews, (Leiden;Brill, 1974),6.

[2] Hagen, Lectures on Hebrews,6.

[3] Hagen, Lectures on Hebrews, 6.

[4] Pelikan, American Edition of Luther’s Works: Lectures on Titus, Philemon and Hebrews, (Vol 29, Saint Louis; Concordia publishing house,1968) xi.

[5] Pelikan, Lectures on…Hebrews,xi.

[6] Hagen, Lectures on Hebrews, 19-20.

[7] David Allen, Hebrews (NAC; Nashville, Tenn: B&H Publishing, 2010), 46 note 115.

[8] Allen, Hebrews,46 note115.

[9] Pelikan, Lectures on…Hebrews, 122.

[10] Paul Althaus, The theology of Martin Luther, (Philadelphia; Fortress Press,1963)255.

[11] Althaus, The Theology, 174.

[12] Pelikan, Lectures on… Hebrews,122

[13] Pelikan, Lectures on… Hebrews,122

[14] Pelikan, Lectures on…Hebrews, 123.

[15] Pelikan, Lectures on…Hebrews,123.

[16] Pelikan, Lectures on… Hebrews,123.

[17] Pelikan, Lectures on…Hebrews, 152.

[18]Pelikan, Lectures on…Hebrews, 153.

[19] Pelikan, Lectures on…Hebrews, 163.

[20] Pelikan, Lectures on…Hebrews, 164.

[21]Pelikan, Lectures on…Hebrews, 164.

[22] Pelikan, Lectures on…Hebrews, 164.

[23] Pelikan, Lectures on…Hebrews, 165.

[24] Pelikan, Lectures on…Hebrews, 165.

[25] Pelikan, Lectures on…Hebrews, 146-167.

[26]Hagan, Lectures on Hebrews, 76.

[27] Hagan, Lectures on Hebrews, 76.

[28] Hagan, Lectures on Hebrews, 77.

[29] Pelikan, Lectures…on Hebrews 209.

[30] Pelikan, Lectures on Hebrews,78.

[31] Pelikan, Lectures on Hebrews, 148.

[32] E. Theodore Bachmann, The American Edition of Luther Works: Word and Sacrament I, (Vol 35, Philadelphia;Fortress Press,1960), 394.

[33] Pelikan, Lectures on… Hebrews, 181.

[34] Pelikan, Lectures on …Hebrews.181.

[35] Pelikan, Lectures on …Hebrews 182.

[36]Pelikan, Lectures on… Hebrews, 227.

[37] Pelikan, Lectures on… Hebrews, 227.

[38] Pelikan, Lectures on… Hebrews, 227.

[39] Pelikan, Lectures on… Hebrews, 228.

[40] Pelikan, Lectures on… Hebrews, 228.

[41] Pelikan, Lectures on… Hebrews, 228.

[42] Pelikan, Lectures on… Hebrews, 228.

[43] Pelikan, Lectures on… Hebrews, 228.

Bibliography

Allen, David. Hebrews . NAC; Nashville, Tenn: B&H Publishing, 2010.

Althaus, Paul. The theology of Martin Luther, Philadelphia; Fortress Press,1963.

Bachmann, E. Theodore. The American Edition of Luther Works: Word and Sacrament I, Vol 35, Philadelphia; Fortress Press,1960.

Hagen, Kenneth. A Theology of Testament in the Young Luther: the Lectures on Hebrews, Leiden; Brill, 1974.

Pelikan, Jaroslav. American Edition of Luther’s Works: Lectures on Titus, Philemon and Hebrews, Vol 29, Saint Louis; Concordia publishing house,1968.