The
Ancient Near East has a wide variety of love poems and songs - ranging from
Sumerian sacred marriage texts, the Song of Songs, the Egyptian love songs, and
the occasional declaration of love/passionate desire of Ugaritic poetry. Not
only does each of these cultures have different styles of poetry, but they also
attach different meanings to words like love and marriage. Moreover, each
culture's love songs served different purposes in their culture. However, although
these literary works encapsulated the norms of their cultures well, none of
these works were quite as profound and passionate as the Hebraic Song of Songs.
Admittedly, the Song of Songs does share some themes of love with similar
literature of the Ancient Near East, yet many of these overlapping themes do
not have the same meaning, usage, or context as other Ancient Near Eastern
cultures. Thus, while there are some
similarities between the Song of Songs and the ancient Egyptian and Sumerian
literature, the Song of Songs is still a separate piece of literary work, with
certain unique attributes that make it unlike any other.
The Purpose of Love Songs in the Ancient
Near East
When reading through Egyptian and
Sumerian love poetry and the Song of Songs, one thing becomes quite clear -
they all served quite different functions. The Sumerian love songs were epic
literature
around the idea of sacred marriage. Moreover, they were not really love songs,
but "Sexual lyric[s]" or "sex poetry."[1] The
sacred marriage was where gods Dumuzi (Amaushumgalanna)[2] and
Inanna (Ishtar[3])[4] would
perform some cultic ritual through human participants - usually a king and a
priestess. The pair would perform "sexual acts that were supposed to
restore fertility to the sun-scorched earth."[5] The function
of this sacred marriage by Inanna and Dumuzi or Baal and Anet was to make some
form of sexual bond or love connection. This love connection will directly
affect the fertility of the land and of individuals. Both Egyptian love poetry
and the Song of Songs do not fit this concept of Sumerian love literature.
 |
| Dumuzi |
The Egyptian songs were secular and
used for "diversions" or for individuals and groups in the form of "entertainment."[6] While
fertility was an important issue for the Egyptian people, there was no
connection to a sacred marriage ritual fertility cult in Egyptian literature.[7] Like the Song of Songs, the Egyptian love
songs were based on the relationship and interaction between lovers, rather
than on the topic of gods and their affect on fertility.
The Song of Songs is also a love
song, with no religious overtones relating to the cultic sacred marriage. However,
this has not stopped scholars from trying to link the Song of Songs to these
rituals. One idea that was postulated by Theophile Meek was that the reason why
the Song of Songs was not admitted into the cannon immediately and then
allegorized, was because it was linked to the "Tammuz-Ishtar cult," which
was then unpopular because the prophets created an unfavorable view of the
cult.[8] He
basically goes through the text looking for words to link to this theory. The
theory is also based on the Hebrew word dod
(דּוֹד), which is translated throughout the song
as "my beloved." Meek argues that the word dod is not properly translated as "my beloved," but that
this is a name of a god, which can be "variously rendered Dod, Dad, dodo,
Dadu, and ...Addu or Adad, the Palestinian counterpart of Tammuz."[9] He would
interpret these passages then as "my Dod" and that is similar to
"my Damu" or "My Tammuz."[10] Furthermore,
Meek interprets metaphorical language as literal. For example, he understands
Song of Songs 4:8 to be the bride literally living in the mountains, or being
from the mountains, rather than understanding it as the author comparing his
beloved to the sex symbol of the day.[11] The inherent
flaw of Meek's arguments is that he is looking for parallels[12] in the
love and passions found in the sacred marriage text. This is very possible,
because it is in the very nature of the literature to convey themes like love,
passion desire, gardens, praise for the lover and so on. At the end of the day
the "song never alludes to myth or ritual."[13]
In general, the Song of Song seems
to also be a secular song, like the love songs of the Egyptian. However, the
song is a part of the inspired Word of God and is categorized in the wisdom
literature. It should be translated literally within it historical context. Thus, the Song of Songs is probably best
understood to be an “instruction on and celebration of [the] physical nature of
human beings…extol[ling] the God-ordained goodness and virtue of sexual love between
man and woman united in matrimony.”[14] Moreover,
the Song of Songs is a biblical explanation of what biblical love can and
should be like, and that it is indeed biblical to enjoy both physical and
emotional intimacy with one's husband/wife in marriage.
The Thematic Similarity of Longing
In the Ancient Near East as in any
other time period in history, there are passions and emotions that embody
universal aspects of humanity. Love songs are perfect case studies for these
specific universal emotional aspects like passion, longing and desire. Yet, just
because these themes overlap does not mean that they must be conveying the same
cultural, religious or even cultic understanding contained in the text. Rather,
these songs, by their very genre, convey human nature; specifically, the aspect
of love, which is an emotion which would be understood by today's readers just
as much as readers of the past.
They all have songs of desire or longing.
For instance, in one of the Egyptian
love songs, there is a boy who wishes he was a specific girl's door keeper so
that he could be closer to her. He also wishes to get her angry so that he can
hear her voice. It states,
(A)The mansion of (my)
sister: her entry is in the middle of her house, her double-doors are open, her
latch-blot drawn back, and (my sister incensed! (B) If only I were appointed
door keeper, I'd get her angry at me! Then i'd hear her voice when she was
incensed--(as) a child in fear of her![15] (P
Harris 500, group A: No 7)
Then there is an Egyptian love song
of a girl who misses her love and longs for him - so much that she even goes to
seek him out, possibly because she is afraid she has lost him to another woman.[16] It
states,
(A) My heart thought of
your love, while (only) half my side-locks were done up. (B) I have come
hastily to seek you, the back of my hairdo [loose]. (C) My cloths and my
tresses have been ready all the while.[17] (P.
Harris 500, group B: No 16)
Out of the Sumerian love songs that
were found, there seems to be only one where the main actor of the literary
piece genuinely is missing or longing for a lover. This proves to be rare,
since Sumerian love songs are based off cultic fertility rituals and that
leaves little room to depict passionate longing. In the song "Oh That I Might
Know the Way to my Beloved (DI R)" there are three fragmentary sources.
Source A states,
Oh that I might know
the way of the bridegroom, my milk, my cream! Oh that I might know the way to
my Amausum, my milk, my cream! Oh that I might know the way to Amausumgalanna,
my milk, my cream! O that I might know the way to the rushes, to my milk, my
milk! Oh that I might know the way to the poplar, the cool place, (to) my milk
! Oh that I might know the way to the inus-plant, the purifying
plant, (to) my milk ! Oh that I might know the way to the
meadow, the freezing place, (to) my milk ! Oh that I might know
the way to the pure sheepfold, my bridegroom's Sheepfold! Oh that I might know
the way to the pure sheepfold, my Dumuzi's sheepfold
This
passage is about Inanna longing for her bridegroom who is portrayed as the
farmer and sheepherder. The problem is that the groom is missing, which is
depicted in section b of this fragment of text. This portion of text alludes
that the groom was handed over to the "evil ones", which might
indicate a reference to the underworld.
 |
| Baal-Ugaritic God |
[A day, two days] pass,
and [Maiden Anat] seeks him. Like the heart of the c[ow] for her calf, like the
heart of the ew[e] for her lamb, so is the heart of an[at] for Baal. She grabs Mo[t]
by the hem of his garment, she seizes [him] by the edge of his cloak. she
raises her voice and [cri]es: "You, O Mot, give up my brother, "...A day,
two day pass from days to months Maiden Anat seeks him. Like the heart of a cow
for her calf, like the heart of the ewe for her lamb, so is the heart of Anat
for Baal. She seizes Divine Mot, with a sword and splits him, with a sieve she
winnows him. With fire she burns him, with millstones she grinds him, in a
field she sows him. The birds eat his flesh, fowl devour his parts, flesh to
flesh cries out. [20]
This
passage seeks to depict the goddess Anat, longing for her love,
although the
passion shown is monotonous. It is not as obvious until you see how she reacts
to the loss of her love Baal to Mot[21] in the
underworld. Anat in response to her loss, seizes Mot and splits him in half and
burns him, and feeds him to the birds, because of her longing love for Baal
that is not satisfied because he is gone.
.png) |
| Anet-Ugaritic goddes |
Song of Songs 3:1-2 also depicts this
powerful emotion of longing. Moreover, Othmar Keel seems to think that this
passage directly parallels with the Ball cycle text above, and that this
particular song was originally written to a goddess and modified. Song of Songs
3:1-2(ESV) states, "On my bed by night I sought him whom my soul loves; I
sought him, but found him not. I will rise now and go
about the city, in the streets and in the squares; I will seek him whom my soul loves. I sought him, but found
him not." As in the previous songs, this passage also shows a passion a
longing desire that the players in these works have towards the ones they
loved. Furthermore, even though Keel compares Song of Song 3:1 specifically to
the goddess Anet, when looking at the greater context, it is doubtful that this
conclusion can be made from so few lines. Fox, on the other hand, compares this passage
to the Egyptian Text P. Harris 500 group B: No13 section c, which states,
"For are you not health and life (itself)? The approach [of your face will
give (me)]joy for your health, (for) my heart seeks you."[22] The key here is that her heart misses her beloved
so much that she is sick without him. This concept of being sick in love also
parallels Song of Songs 5:8.
Differences Among Ancient Near East Love
Songs
The first major difference was their
understanding of love, as the Sumerians and Akkadians had a sense that love could
be directed towards anything; thus, love can be directed at people, things,
places, animals and even abstract nouns.[23] For
instance, "Ishtar is said to have had an affair with her horse and Sin was
in love with his cow."[24] Meanwhile,
the Hebrew word for love (אַהֲבָה)
is used to refer to humans or a love between a man and a woman, and to refer to
Yahweh's love for his people.[25]
Westenholz also makes an interesting point that the Hebrew concept of love was
one that is "limited to children, spouses, and God, while parents are to
be 'honored' rather than loved."[26]
Meanwhile, the Egyptian view of love was "an emotion that is generally
expressed" quite hierarchically - from the top down, where people were to
be in reverential awe or respect for those over them - whether it be gods or
kings.[27]
Second, there is a difference in
several key futures of these love songs. For instance, in the Sumerian text
there is a song titled the "The Lovers' Quarrel (DI I)" where Inanna
is fighting with her groom - basically belittling him because of his inferior
lineage.[28]
This theme is not found in either the Song of Songs or in Egyptian love poetry.
This clearly contradicts the Song especially when compared to Song of Songs
6:3ab which states, “I am my beloveds and my beloved is mine.” This passage
conveys a sense of humility and mutual love given by both parties.
Moreover, the Sumerian love songs tended to be centered almost entirely on something to do with fertility - whether it is preparing for harvest, or preparing a bed for sex, or sex, itself. Egyptian literature does not fit thematically with the context of the cultic practices of the Inanna-Dumuzi cult. Nor does the Song of Songs convey the concepts found within Inanna-Dumuzi cultic practices, whether one understands the Song as an anthology or a unity. While Solomon is a king, there is no proof that Shulamith is a priestess. Rather, Shulamith was instead some princess from some nomadic people.
Moreover, the Sumerian love songs tended to be centered almost entirely on something to do with fertility - whether it is preparing for harvest, or preparing a bed for sex, or sex, itself. Egyptian literature does not fit thematically with the context of the cultic practices of the Inanna-Dumuzi cult. Nor does the Song of Songs convey the concepts found within Inanna-Dumuzi cultic practices, whether one understands the Song as an anthology or a unity. While Solomon is a king, there is no proof that Shulamith is a priestess. Rather, Shulamith was instead some princess from some nomadic people.
Furthermore, the Egyptian love songs
also have several problematic themes. One of the clearest examples of this is
the "love trap" theme.[29] It is
in essence a theme where a girl ensnares her lover. This concept can also be
seen in the Sumerian love song, "Love by the light of the moon (DI
H)," where not only does the maiden gets seduced, but her lover then
teaches her to lie to her mother.[30] This
theme is clearly not found within the text of Song of Songs. In fact, just as
there is no cultic theme in the Song of Songs, Egyptian love poetry does not have
cultic themes either. According to Hector Patmore, "Two of the most
prominent themes of canticles, the seeking of the beloved...and the invitation
of the one lover to another to come away....are entirely absent in the Egyptian
corpus."[31]
Another clearly noticeable difference
is that the word "brother" is never used in reference to the male
lover in the Song of Songs. On the other hand, "brother", is used
many times in both Egyptian and Sumerian love literature in reference to male
lovers and all three use the word, "sister" to refer to female
lovers. Furthermore, Egyptian love poetry only consists of monologues; there are
no examples of dialogue at all in the poetry.[32]
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Song of Songs is a
unique and individual love song that has incorporated many foreign elements
into it. This can be seen by the sheer number of foreign concepts that are not
even present in the ancient Sumerian or Egyptian songs, and by the manner in
which the Song incorporates facets of all three cultures within its text. An
example of this can be seen in Song of Songs 4:9 where the Hebrew word mumo (מוּם)
meaning blemish is used, which brings with it Jewish cultic ramifications. The
word deals with both inner and outer purity. For example, if a priest was to
have a physical flaw, he was to be excluded from "priestly
service"(Lv 21:17-23) and the same went for animal sacrifices (Lv 22:20,
21, 25 Nu 19:2 Dt 15:21; 17:1).[33]
Furthermore, the word can be taken figuratively to mean a "moral
blemish."(Dt 32:5).[34] The Song
also incorporates aspects of Sumerian love poetry. For instance, when Solomon
in Song of Songs is asking Shulamith to come down from the mountains which are
in Lebanon, this is a reference to Ishtar's throne or home, which is referenced
in the Epic of Gilgamesh.[35]Moreover,
Solomon gives reference to leopards and lions and both are related to Inanna/Ishtar.[36] In fact,
in the Sumerian love song, "She Painted Her Eyes with Kohl (DI E1)," Ishtar
is actually riding a lion.[37]
In
the end, the Song of Songs is a perfect example of how Solomon utilized his
knowledge of the cultural realities of his day. Solomon's incorporation of
these realities into the Song shows the expansion of thought and understanding
that went beyond the basic concepts found in both the Egyptian loves songs and
the Sumerian sacred marriage text. Therefore, because of this incorporation and
loosely fit unity strung together with dialogue, this makes the Song of Songs
the most unique and distinct masterpiece of Ancient Near Eastern love
literature.
[2]
Inanna originally was the goddess of date storehouses and she would then marry
Amaushumgalanna, the god of date harvesters, hence why Inanna is considered the
"goddess of storehouses";
Dumuzi was the god of the shepherds, eventually both Dumuzi and
Amaushumgalanna became interchangeable names. Also combined the "divine
pair Dumuzi-Inanna." becomes the "goddess of rain."Yiṣḥāq Sefātî,
Love Songs in Sumerian Literature:
Critical Edition of the Dumuzi-Inanna Songs.( Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan Univ.
Press, 1998)80.
[4]
Inanna's original name was "queen of the date clusters" and later
"Queen of heaven"( Ṣefātî, Love Songs, 79-80, or "lady of Heaven'(nin.an.ak)"/"'Lady
of the date Clusters'(nin.ana.ak)" Abusch, "Ishtar," DDD,(Liden: Brill, 1998)452. Overall, Inanna/Ishtar is basically a
goddess of love, war, sex, fertility, passion and anger. Julye M. Bidmead, "Ishtar", in Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible ( ed.
David Noel Freedman et al.; Michigan: W.B. Eerdmans, 2000), 654.
[12]Others
who argue for parallels that link the Song of Songs to Ugaretic text would be,
Jerrold S. Copper, who links Song of Songs 5:10-16 with, "the 'second
sign' of the 'Message of Ludingira," and Song of Songs 4:12-15 with
"the 'third sign,' of the "Message of Ludingira." Jerrold S.
Cooper, "New Cuneiform Parallels to the Song of Songs," JBL 90,
2(1971)157-162. The problem with
these comparisons is that again the comparison is scant; you are taking a song
that is not meant to be an epic/mythological and comparing it to a mythological
figure. 2. Again just because a passage mentions mountains, gold, ivory and so
on does not mean that they are intrinsically
linked.
Then there is Loren Fisher and Brent Knutson who builds off Meek's arguments. They argued that, Text 603 (rs 24.245) is supposedly one love song mixed in with other liturgical/magical text. The gist of the argument is that there is possibly a physical depiction of Baal that uses key words like head(2), eyes, leg, mouth, and the beloved. It is because of these key words found on this Ugarit fragment that Fisher and Knutson find Baal's enthronement love song possibly parallel to Song of Songs 5:10-16. This leads to the idea that the Song of Songs was inspired by an ancient sacred marriage text. Loren R. Fisher & F. Brent Knutson, "An Enthronement Ritual at Ugarit," JNES 28, 3 (1969):157-167. The problem with Fisher and Knutson's argument is that 1: this is a love song to Baal supposedly given by Anet, who celebrates her love for Baal with a cannibalistic feast after slaughtering people before cleaning up and then playing love music in passionate desire for Baal. Simon B. Parker,"The Baal Cycle," in Ugaritic Narrative Poetry, (trnas. M. S. Smith vol 9 in the SBL Writings from the Ancient World Series; Georgia: Scholars Press, 1997 )107-109. The fact is many of these text have parallels that were probably imported into Israel and possibly influenced the imagery in the Song that said, the themes in the Ugaritic text and Sumerian text predominantly are dealing with fertility cults or the mythological love between gods. Neither of these two major themes of Sumerian poetry is found in the text of Song of Songs beyond metaphorical language and that is within the context of a love song between two lovers, no more.
Then there is Loren Fisher and Brent Knutson who builds off Meek's arguments. They argued that, Text 603 (rs 24.245) is supposedly one love song mixed in with other liturgical/magical text. The gist of the argument is that there is possibly a physical depiction of Baal that uses key words like head(2), eyes, leg, mouth, and the beloved. It is because of these key words found on this Ugarit fragment that Fisher and Knutson find Baal's enthronement love song possibly parallel to Song of Songs 5:10-16. This leads to the idea that the Song of Songs was inspired by an ancient sacred marriage text. Loren R. Fisher & F. Brent Knutson, "An Enthronement Ritual at Ugarit," JNES 28, 3 (1969):157-167. The problem with Fisher and Knutson's argument is that 1: this is a love song to Baal supposedly given by Anet, who celebrates her love for Baal with a cannibalistic feast after slaughtering people before cleaning up and then playing love music in passionate desire for Baal. Simon B. Parker,"The Baal Cycle," in Ugaritic Narrative Poetry, (trnas. M. S. Smith vol 9 in the SBL Writings from the Ancient World Series; Georgia: Scholars Press, 1997 )107-109. The fact is many of these text have parallels that were probably imported into Israel and possibly influenced the imagery in the Song that said, the themes in the Ugaritic text and Sumerian text predominantly are dealing with fertility cults or the mythological love between gods. Neither of these two major themes of Sumerian poetry is found in the text of Song of Songs beyond metaphorical language and that is within the context of a love song between two lovers, no more.
_________________________________
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